Speech Act Theory Definition and Examples

Speech act theory is a subfield of pragmatics that studies how words are used not only to present information but also to carry out actions. The speech act theory was introduced by Oxford philosopher J.L. Austin in How to Do Things With Words and further developed by American philosopher J.R. Searle. It  considers the degree to which utterances  are said to perform locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and/or perlocutionary acts. Many philosophers and linguists study speech act theory as a way to better understand human communication. Part of the joy of doing speech act theory, from my strictly first-person point of view, is becoming more and more remindful of how many surprisingly different things we do when we talk to each other, (Kemmerling 2002). Searles Five Illocutionary Points Philosopher J.R. Searle is responsible for devising a system of speech act categorization. In the past three decades, speech act theory has become an important branch of the contemporary theory of language thanks mainly to the influence of [J.R.] Searle (1969, 1979) and [H.P.] Grice (1975) whose ideas on meaning and communication have stimulated research in philosophy and in human and cognitive sciences... From Searles view, there are only five illocutionary points that speakers can achieve on propositions in an utterance, namely: the assertive, commissive, directive, declaratory and expressive illocutionary points. Speakers achieve the assertive point when they represent how things are in the world, the commissive point when they commit themselves to doing something, the directive point when they make an attempt to get hearers to do something, the declaratory point when they do things in the world at the moment of the utterance solely by virtue of saying that they do and the expressive point when they express their attitudes about objects and facts of the world (Vanderkeven and Kubo 2002). Speech Act Theory and Literary Criticism Since 1970 speech act theory has influenced...the practice of literary criticism. When applied to the analysis of direct discourse by a character within a literary work, it provides a systematic...framework for identifying the unspoken presuppositions, implications, and effects of speech acts [that] competent readers and critics have always taken into account, subtly though unsystematically. Speech act theory has also been used in a more radical way, however, as a model on which to recast the theory of literature...and especially...prose narratives. What the author of a fictional work—or else what the authors invented narrator—narrates is held to constitute a pretended set of assertions, which are intended by the author, and understood by the competent reader, to be free from a speakers ordinary commitment to the truth of what he or she asserts. Within the frame of the fictional world that the narrative thus sets up, however, the utterances of the fictional characters—whether these are assertions or promises or marital vows—are held to be responsible to ordinary illocutionary commitments, (Abrams and Galt Harpham 2005). Criticisms of Speech Act Theory Although Searles theory of speech acts has had a tremendous influence on functional aspects of pragmatics, it has also received very strong criticism. The Function of Sentences Some argue that Austin and Searle based their work principally on their intuitions, focusing exclusively on sentences isolated from the context where they might be used. In this sense, one of the main contradictions to Searles suggested typology is the fact that the illocutionary force of a concrete speech act cannot take the form of a sentence as Searle considered it. Rather, researchers suggest that a sentence is a grammatical unit within the formal system of language, whereas the speech act involves a communicative function separate from this, (Martà ­nez Flor and Usà ³-Juan 2010). Interactional Aspects of Conversation In speech act theory, the hearer is seen as playing a passive role. The illocutionary force of a particular utterance is determined with regard to the linguistic form of the utterance and also introspection as to whether the necessary felicity conditions—not least in relation to the speakers beliefs and feelings—are fulfilled. Interactional aspects are, thus, neglected. However, [a] conversation is not just a mere chain of independent illocutionary forces—rather, speech acts are related to other speech acts with a wider discourse context. Speech act theory, in that it does not consider the function played by utterances in driving conversation is, therefore, insufficient in accounting for what actually happens in conversation, (Barron 2003). Sources Abrams, Meyer Howard, and Geoffrey Galt Harpham.  A Glossary of Literary Terms. 8th ed., Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2005.Austin, J.l. â€Å"How To Do Things With Words.† 1975.Barron, Anne.  Acquisition in Interlanguage Pragmatics Learning How to Do Things with Words in a Study Abroad Context. J. Benjamins Pub. Co., 2003.Flor Alicia Martà ­nez, and Juan Esther Usà ³.  Speech Act Performance: Theoretical, Empirical and Methodological Issues. Vol. 26, John Benjamins Pub. Company, 2010.Kemmerling, Andreas. â€Å"Speech Acts, Minds, and Social Reality: Discussions with John r. Searle. Expressing an Intentional State.†Ã‚  Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy, vol. 79, 2002, pp. 83.  Kluwer Academic Publishers.Vanderveken, Daniel, and Susumu Kubo. â€Å"Introduction.†Ã‚  Essays in Speech Act Theory, John Benjamins, 2001, pp. 1–21.

Slavery And Jim Crow Laws Essay - 1130 Words

Throughout the early 1960s, African American people living in the United States were greatly oppressed. Slavery and Jim Crow laws, which justified segregation, were abolished; however, African Americans did not receive equal treatment, as the ideology of white supremacy, or Caucasians being the superior race, remained in tact. Since juries typically consisted of Caucasian males who favored other Caucasians, African Americans rarely received fair trials. Other factors, such as housing opportunities, were unequal for African Americans as well, and as a result, poorer districts consisting solely of African Americans formed. Since African Americans were strictly segregated from Caucasians and therefore did not receive similar opportunities, the ideology that African Americans were inferior to Caucasians became hegemonic, meaning that the belief that African Americans had fewer rights than Caucasians was simply accepted in society without question. Though laws and regulations guaranteed e quality among all races, African Americans remained oppressed; therefore, groups like the Black Panther Party began to fight this hegemonic ideology. Their violent and nonviolent protests were considered counter-hegemonic, as they hoped to diminish the unfair and inaccurate ideologies that had existed and essentially become common sense within society. In the â€Å"Black Panther Platform,† the Black Panther Party details their reasons for participating in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, aShow MoreRelatedSlavery And Jim Crow Laws1613 Words   |  7 Pagesfor over 400 years and since arriving the black race has struggled to obtain equality. Realistically, if you are born black in the United States of America, you are in a sense cursed with the burdens of   systematic oppression and racism.   Slavery and Jim Crow Laws were created by white supremacist to maintain power and authority as they sought out to rule over any and all minority groups they consider inferior t o the white race. Fortunately, leaders of the black race have made tremendous strides inRead MoreThe Strange Career of Jim Crow by C. Vann Woodward1063 Words   |  5 PagesWoodward wrote The Strange Career of Jim Crow for a purpose. His purpose was to enlighten people about the history of the Jim Crow laws in the South. Martin Luther King Jr. called Woodward’s book, â€Å"the historical Bible of the civil rights movement.† (221) Martin Luther King Jr.’s quote revealed the true importance of Woodward’s book. Woodard’s book significance was based on it revealing the strange, forgotten facets of the Jim Crow laws. Assumptions about the Jim Crow’s career have existed since itsRead MoreAs Far as the Crow Flies731 Words   |  3 PagesMississippi will long be known for is slavery, Jim Crow Laws, and the murder of Emmett Till. Slavery began in Mississippi before it became a state and the majority of its existence relied on the free labor of Afr ican-Americans. Jim Crow Laws enforced segregation between African-Americans and Whites in Mississippi following the end of slavery. Emmett Till was an unfortunate casualty of unknowingly going against the laws of segregation in the South. Slavery in Mississippi went through more stagesRead MoreThe New Jim Crow Law1014 Words   |  5 PagesMass incarceration is known as a net of laws, policies, and rules that equates to the American criminal justice system. This series of principles of our legal system works as an entrance to a lifelong position of lower status, with no hope of advancement. Mass incarceration follows those who are released from prison through exclusion and legalized discrimination, hidden within America. The New Jim Crow is a modernized version of the original Jim Crow Laws. It is a modern racial caste system designedRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration Essay795 Words   |  4 Pagesto write a reflection on discussed The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness which is a book written by Michelle Alexander a highly acclaimed civil rights lawyer, advocate and Associate Professor of Law at Ohio State University. Michelle Alexander states that although we made tremendous p rogress with Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s by unifying as a race and fought to seemingly ended the old Jim Crow era by the passing of laws such as the 1965 voting act and Brown V.S BoardRead MoreThe New Jim Crow By Michelle Alexander1313 Words   |  6 Pages The New Jim Crow Michelle Alexander’s the new Jim Crow Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness examine the Jim Crow practices post slavery and the mass incarceration of African-American. The creation of Jim Crows laws where used as a tool to promote segregation among the minority and white American. Michelle Alexander’s the new Jim Crow Mass takes a look at Jim Crow laws and policies were put into place to block the social progression African-American from the post-slavery to the civilRead MoreThe New Jim Crow By Michelle Alexander1316 Words   |  6 Pages The New Jim Crow Michelle Alexander’s the new Jim Crow Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness examine the Jim Crow practices post slavery and the mass incarceration of African-American. The creation of Jim Crows laws were used as a tool to promote segregation among the minority and white American. Michelle Alexander’s the new Jim Crow Mass takes a look at Jim Crow laws and policies were put into place to block the social progression African-American from the post-slavery to the civilRead MoreAncient History and Slavery836 Words   |  4 PagesSlavery is a condition defined as one human being owning another human. Ancient history shows the Greeks, Romans and Mayans accepted slavery. Later continental Europeans became involved in slavery, importing slaves from Africa to the New World. During this time over eleven million African slaves were taken from their homeland as part of the transatlantic slave trade. Eventually the American Civil War led to slaves freedom due to the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation, which was signed byRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1370 Words   |  6 Pageschanged, and shaped into unrecognizable ways that fit into the fabric of the American society to render it nearly invisible to the majority of Americans. Michelle Alexander, in her book, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness shatters this dominantly held belief. The New Jim Crow makes a reader profoundly question whether the high rates of incarceration in the United States is an attempt to maintain blacks as an underclass. Michelle Alexander makes the assertion that â€Å"[w]eRead MoreThe Strange Career Of Jim Crow862 Words   |  4 PagesJim crow laws In the 18th century the civil war had brought in end to slavery ,when the union beat the confederacy.Many people believe that slavery ended right there, and that anything else that happened to African Americans after that was due to racism of the people of that time.When in reality that change had caused ripples, that would shape history and the way people think all the way till today.Using historical ideas ,journals ,and such C.Vann Woodward in The Strange Career Of JIM CROW

“Of Mice and Men” and “Into the Wild Essay” Free Essays

of Mice and Men’ and Sean Peen’s ‘Into the Wild’ explore the fundamental themes of freedom, companionship and following your ambitions. (QUESTION). ‘Of Mice and Men’ is set during the Great Depression in which George and Leonie explore the realism of freedom and hardships by hoping to one day have their own farm. We will write a custom essay sample on â€Å"Of Mice and Men† and â€Å"Into the Wild Essay† or any similar topic only for you Order Now In contrast, Chris from ‘Into the Wild’ achieves ultimate freedom by choosing to run away and live In the wild. Both texts explore different perceptions of freedom. Steinbeck novel demonstrates how everyone’s perception of freedom is suppressed. George and Lien’s idea of freedom is to have their own land and yield themselves from the peril of the world. However, they are denied this freedom because of their lack of money. The technique of multiple perceptions Is adopted by the omniscient narrator to access various view points of the characters that represent different types of freedom suppression. This is depicted in the sentimental quotes by Curlers wife who says â€Å"l tell yea I could of went with shows’. Ã'› She was breathless with indignation† or Crooks who states â€Å"Cause I’m black. They play cards In there, but I can’t play because I’m Black. Similar to George and Leonie, Chris desires freedom however, he does this by moving away from a lavish lifestyle to one of struggle which he calls â€Å"ultimate freedom†. This change is contrary to that of George and Leonie who are looking to free themselves from the chains of poverty. Through the poetic phrase â€Å"The f reedom and simple beauty Is too good to pass up† Chris expresses his new found freedom in the laws of nature. Therefore both texts explore a heightened sense of suppression for the protagonists when it comes to the idea of freedom. The necessity of companionship is integral in both texts. Companionship can have both positive and negative ramifications. In Steinbeck novel Leonie Is shown to exhibit child-like behavior which makes him completely dependent on George. As a result of his disability, Leonie spends all of his time with George and the pair often find themselves running from authority. Despite the difficult situations that Leonie Imposes on George, George describes his gratitude towards Lien’s companionship through a sentimental tone when he states â€Å"†¦ With us it anti like that†¦ We got somebody to talk to†¦ † This highlights that through a time of great difficulty where people avoided each other as expressed through the quote, Maybe everybody in the whole damn world is scared of each other† George values Lien’s companionship. In contrast. Peen’s film explores Chris’ distaste for human companionship in order to achieve his ultimate freedom. He expresses this through his aversive tone, â€Å"You don’t need human relationships to be happy†¦ † Chris demonstrates that companionship isn’t necessary to have happiness and that it can be found In nature. HIS viewpoint of companionship Is a result of his parent’s physical disputes. However he later realizes that he was happiest when in the company of other travelers. He expresses this through the technique of regretful tone as he says â€Å"Happiness only real when shared†. Therefore both texts signify the Importance of companionship. Both texts promote the Idea of following your ambitions to ultimately lead you to happiness. George and Leonie strive to have their own farm but their dreams remain unfulfilled. In the end George has to kill Leonie 1 OFF Burns’, â€Å"To a Mouse†, which contains the couplet, â€Å"The best laid plans of mice and men / Often go awry’. Hence, it is a novel that Juxtaposes the nature â€Å"of mice† – and the social world – â€Å"men† and provides an insight into the fading nature of ambitions. The manifestation of handicapped characters such as Crooks having a crooked spine, or Leonie being mentally slow, metaphorically schemes the theme of men going ‘awry by trying to achieve a disillusioned dream. Peen’s film contradicts Steinbeck novel and shows that Chris indeed found happiness by following his ambitions. His ambitions involved trying to understand the human condition which can be seen through his zealous poetry when Chris states † Two years he walks the earth†¦ The climactic battle to kill the false being within†¦ No longer to be poisoned by civilization†¦. Chris wanted to understand the raw power of human experiences which he says is â€Å"†¦ The core of man’s spirit†¦ And his dedication to fulfill this ambition led him to find what he was looking for and ultimately find happiness. Therefore in conclusion, the protagonists in â€Å"Of Mice and Men† and â€Å"Into the Wild† uniquely express the fundamental ideas of freedom, companionship and following your ambitions. Their desire for freedom is shared but their perception of obtaining it is different. Steinbeck shows that the ambitions of men will remain unfulfille d while Peen’s film depicts that the ultimate freedom is to share happiness. (Question) How to cite â€Å"Of Mice and Men† and â€Å"Into the Wild Essay†, Essays

Referred To As Marketing That Is Required â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Referred To As Marketing That Is Required? Answer: Introducation Social media is the biggest tool of marketing these days, it has been analysed that sing these tool has provided many benefits to the companies as well as to the customers. Social media marketing or social marketing referred to as the marketing that is required to be done in order to make social relation with the customers with the use social networking sites. When any of the customers or the person makes his accounting on Facebook, he makes it to have interaction with the friends and to make new friends. The people want to be social and want to connect with each other. But, the companies have used this process to market their products as well as to make relations with the customers by contacting them with these social media sites. It has been analysed that Facebook, twitter and instagram are some of the most useful sites that have changed the nature of marketing and made it social marketing thee days. Social mobile and local marketing With the development in the mobile technology, it has been analysed that development in the marketing by the companies can also be seen. The companies these days are using these mobile devices and mobile applications to market their products as well as to save the market. The companies make their own mobile applications and allow the customers have access to these applications; these applications are then used to buy the products that are available online. Most of the companies also use these mobile applications for the marketing their products only. They display their products and services on their applications but they can avail by contacting the company. This suggests that there are changes that can be observed with the mobile technology impact on the marketing process. Mobile marketing can be defined as the marketing process that results in interactive marketing between the customers and the company is using the mobile devices. Local marketing is the concept that is related to the nature of the local market of the place where the company is operating. Most of the companies that operate in multiple countries have to adopt the strategies of localization so that they can relate with the local customers and market their products in the local market. Online marketing also gets affected by these localization strategies. The company make their websites but they have to provide the option of choosing the language so that the customers who do not know about the parent county language can also access the website by changing the language into their own local language. There are various elements that are required to be put in the websites of the companies to attain local people attractions. References: Truong, V.D., 2014. Social marketing: A systematic review of research 19982012.Social Marketing Quarterly,20(1), pp.15-34. Strm, R., Vendel, M. and Bredican, J., 2014. Mobile marketing: A literature review on its value for consumers and retailers.Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services,21(6), pp.1001-1012. Forman, C., Ghose, A. and Goldfarb, A., 2009. Competition between local and electronic markets: How the benefit of buying online depends on where you live. Management Science,55(1), pp.47-57.